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1. Gcc client.c -o client gcc server.c -o server. Output: Client:Hello message sent Hello from server Server:Hello from client Hello message sent. Next: Socket Programming in C/C: Handling multiple clients on server without multi threading This article is contributed by Akshat Sinha.
2. Mailutils is a swiss army knife of electronic mail handling. It offers a rich set of utilities and daemons for processing e-mail. All Mailutils programs are able to operate on mailboxes of any existing format, ranging from standard UNIX maildrops, through maildir and up to remote mailboxes, which are transparently accessed using IMAP4, POP3 and SMTP.

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OpenEmbedded welcomes contributions. Before submitting a patch however there are a few things to keep in mind.

• 2A task-oriented guide to creating a patch
  • 2.4Sending patches
• 4Appendix

Finding the right place for your patch

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OpenEmbedded is now split up into separate layers: OpenEmbedded-Core (OE-Core) which is a small set of core recipes, and other layers for recipes beyond that. For most layers, patches are sent to a mailing list for review before being merged. For further information specific to the layer you're working on, please see the README file in the layer.

New recipes in particular should be added to the appropriate layer. See the layer index for the list of public layers. If your new recipe doesn't seem to fit anywhere it can be added to the meta-oe layer in the meta-openembedded repository, although if it is likely to be followed by numbers of similar recipes then you may wish to consider creating a new layer.

A task-oriented guide to creating a patch

Let's say you have made a fix to a recipe, you've tested that it works and you'd like to submit it for merging.

Set up git

Properly configuring git (using tekkub@gmail.com as an example user)

On Debian / Ubuntu (Note: Fedora uses `yum` OpenSuse uses zypper or yast)

These are important to the commit meta-data

Any Google Apps account

You can use the --envelope-sender option to have the email appear from the address you are subscribed to the list with. Imusic 2 2 0 5. You will need to use the Accounts and import tab under the gmail settings tab. Use the Send mail as selection to address you want to send email from.

Subscribe to the mailing list

You need to subscribe to the appropriate mailing-list in order to be able to send your patch(es) there; for patches against OE-Core the mailing list is openembedded-core@lists.openembedded.org and for patches against meta-oe and many other layers the list is openembedded-devel@lists.openembedded.org. See Mailing lists for subscription and further details.

Committing your patch

Commit with a concise and descriptive message - one that explains your changes in a way others get a short overview without looking at the code.

All commit messages must include Signed-off-by (-s option to commit as above). For more guidelines on messages please see Commit Patch Message Guidelines.

Note that when adding multiple new recipes, each recipe should be added in a separate commit. For upgrades of existing recipes, the previous version should usually be deleted as part of the same commit to add the upgraded version.

Sending patches

There are two possible methods for submitting patches. Either one is acceptable; for a series containing a number of patches the pull request method is preferred although not mandatory.

Sending using git-send-email

To send just the top commit on your current branch (substitute mailing list address as appropriate):

For multiple commits you can substitute -1 above with -N (where N is the number of commits) or instead specify a revision before which to start e.g. HEAD~3, master etc.

Note: in either case if you are submitting a patch for meta-oe or any layer other than OE-Core, please add the appropriate prefix so that it is clear which layer the patch is intended to be applied to:

Please substitute 'PATCH' with 'PATCH v2' if you are submitting a revised version after addressing feedback (or v3, v4 etc.)

Sending via a pull request

Alternatively, for larger patch series it is preferable to send a pull request which not only includes the patch but also a pointer to a branch that can be pulled from. This involves making a local branch for your changes, pushing this branch to an accessible repository and then using the create-pull-request and send-pull-request scripts (supplied with OE-Core) to create and send a patch series with a link to the branch for review. Step-by-step instructions:

1. Find a repository to push your changes to, and add this as a remote to your git working tree. If you're going to be submitting a lot of changes, some of the repositories have a corresponding -contrib repository which you can use for this purpose - access to these for OE-related work is open to anyone who requests it. Otherwise github or some other public git hosting service can suffice.
2. Create a branch for your changes if you haven't already. Other than backports from master or fixing bugs that only occur in an older branch, this should be on top of the master branch.
3. Push the branch to the remote.
4. Run scripts/create-pull-request -u remote-name (where remote-name is the name of the remote where you'll be pushing the branch). For meta-oe and other layers where a single mailing list covers more than one layer you'll need to add -p 'layername][PATCH' replacing layername with the name of the layer so that it is clear which layer the patches are intended for.
5. The script will report that it has created a pull-XXXXX directory has been created. Edit the pull-XXXXX/0000-cover-letter.patch with your favourite text editor and change the title and top of the body as appropriate.
6. Run scripts/send-pull-request -p pull-XXXXX -t openembedded-core@lists.openembedded.org (replacing openembedded-core@lists.openembedded.org with the appropriate mailing list address for layers other than OE-Core). Where there is a clear maintainer for the area you're changing it may also help to add -C maintainer@example.com.

Backporting fixes to stable releases

When a bug is present on a stable branch of OE yet has been fixed in master one can request that the stable branch's maintainer accept the fix into the stable branch.The best way to do this is generate a patch with the backport and submit it to the openembedded-core@lists.openembedded.org mailing list (CC'ing the maintainer may help the patch be reviewed for inclusion more quickly).

Patches for stable branches should be prefixed with the branch name (which is the same as the release series name), for example morty, pyro, etc.Once you've identified the commit hash of the patch you'd like to see accepted as a backport you can generate the patch with:

The generated patch can then be sent using the procedure described above.

Community review

Your patch will be sent to the mailing list and for some layers should be immediately visible on http://patches.openembedded.org/

If you get feedback in reply to your patch, you should make changes according to the feedback and submit the next version. Please remember to use --subject-prefix='PATCH v2', v3, v4 etc. to mark the patch iteration. Please also test your revised changes - in particular don't just edit the patch file written out by git-format-patch and resend it.

If your patch has not had any feedback after a few days it may have been missed or the appropriate reviewers may not currently be around; it is perfectly fine to reply to it yourself with a 'ping' / reminder request for feedback. NOTE: patch review for feature / recipe upgrade patches will likely be delayed during a feature freeze because these types of patches aren't merged during this time - you may have to wait until after the freeze is lifted.

Appendix

Steps for people which don't have SMTP access for git

Patches should not be sent as attachment but inline.

If you do not have SMTP access to your email account you have two options:

1. Use a different account (e.g. gmail). you can make one especially for this. Note that the account may differ from the one in signed-off (although that is inconvenient)

2. Just include the patch in the body of your email. Make sure you use an email client that does not touch the message (turn spaces in tabs,wrap lines etc etc).

A good mail client to do so is pine (or alpine) or mutt. For more information refer to Documentation/email-clients.txt in linux kernel sources.

Streamlining git-send-email with configuration

Don't want to have to remember to specify the right options when using git-send-email (or the pull request script)? You can actually set these in git's configuration and save yourself a lot of hassle.

• Always confirm sending (for all repositories):
• Set send-to email address for the repository (don't forget to specify the right address!):
• If the mailing list requires a subject prefix for the layer (only works when the repository only contains one layer; set layer name as appropriate):

See also

In software engineering, inversion of control (IoC) is a programming principle. IoC inverts the flow of control as compared to traditional control flow. In IoC, custom-written portions of a computer program receive the flow of control from a generic framework. A software architecture with this design inverts control as compared to traditional procedural programming: in traditional programming, the custom code that expresses the purpose of the program calls into reusable libraries to take care of generic tasks, but with inversion of control, it is the framework that calls into the custom, or task-specific, code.

Inversion of control is used to increase modularity of the program and make it extensible,^[1] and has applications in object-oriented programming and other programming paradigms. The term was used by Michael Mattsson in a thesis,^[2] taken from there^[3] by Stefano Mazzocchi and popularized by him in 1999 in a defunct Apache Software Foundation project, Avalon, then further popularized in 2004 by Robert C. Martin and Martin Fowler.

The term is related to, but different from, the dependency inversion principle, which concerns itself with decoupling dependencies between high-level and low-levellayers through shared abstractions. The general concept is also related to event-driven programming in that it is often implemented using IoC, so that the custom code is commonly only concerned with the handling of events, whereas the event loop and dispatch of events/messages is handled by the framework or the runtime environment.

Overview[edit]

As an example, with traditional programming, the main function of an application might make function calls into a menu library to display a list of available commands and query the user to select one.^[4] The library thus would return the chosen option as the value of the function call, and the main function uses this value to execute the associated command. This style was common in text based interfaces. For example, an email client may show a screen with commands to load new mail, answer the current mail, start a new mail, etc., and the program execution would block until the user presses a key to select a command.

With inversion of control, on the other hand, the program would be written using a software framework that knows common behavioral and graphical elements, such as windowing systems, menus, controlling the mouse, and so on. The custom code 'fills in the blanks' for the framework, such as supplying a table of menu items and registering a code subroutine for each item, but it is the framework that monitors the user's actions and invokes the subroutine when a menu item is selected. In the mail client example, the framework could follow both the keyboard and mouse inputs and call the command invoked by the user by either means, and at the same time monitor the network interface to find out if new messages arrive and refresh the screen when some network activity is detected. The same framework could be used as the skeleton for a spreadsheet program or a text editor. Conversely, the framework knows nothing about Web browsers, spreadsheets or text editors; implementing their functionality takes custom code.

Inversion of control carries the strong connotation that the reusable code and the problem-specific code are developed independently even though they operate together in an application. Software frameworks, callbacks, schedulers, event loops, dependency injection, and the template method are examples of design patterns that follow the inversion of control principle, although the term is most commonly used in the context of object-oriented programming.

Inversion of control serves the following design purposes:

• To decouple the execution of a task from implementation.
• To focus a module on the task it is designed for.
• To free modules from assumptions about how other systems do what they do and instead rely on contracts.
• To prevent side effects when replacing a module.

Inversion of control is sometimes facetiously referred to as the 'Hollywood Principle: Don't call us, we'll call you'.

Background[edit]

Inversion of control is not a new term in computer science. Martin Fowler traces the etymology of the phrase back to 1988,^[5] but it is closely related to the concept of program inversion described by Michael Jackson in his Jackson Structured Programming methodology in the 1970s.^[6] A bottom-up parser can be seen as an inversion of a top-down parser: in the one case, the control lies with the parser, while in the other case, it lies with the receiving application.

Dependency injection is a specific type of IoC.^[4] A service locator such as the Java Naming and Directory Interface (JNDI) is similar. In an article by Loek Bergman,^[7] it is presented as an architectural principle.

In an article by Robert C. Martin,^[8] the dependency inversion principle and abstraction by layering come together. His reason to use the term 'inversion' is in comparison with traditional software development methods. He describes the uncoupling of services by the abstraction of layers when he is talking about dependency inversion. The principle is used to find out where system borders are in the design of the abstraction layers.

Description[edit]

In traditional programming, the flow of the business logic is determined by objects that are statically bound to one another. With inversion of control, the flow depends on the object graph that is built up during program execution. Such a dynamic flow is made possible by object interactions that are defined through abstractions. This run-time binding is achieved by mechanisms such as dependency injection or a service locator. In IoC, the code could also be linked statically during compilation, but finding the code to execute by reading its description from external configuration instead of with a direct reference in the code itself.

In dependency injection, a dependent object or module is coupled to the object it needs at run time. Which particular object will satisfy the dependency during program execution typically cannot be known at compile time using static analysis. While described in terms of object interaction here, the principle can apply to other programming methodologies besides object-oriented programming.

In order for the running program to bind objects to one another, the objects must possess compatible interfaces. For example, class A may delegate behavior to interface I which is implemented by class B; the program instantiates A and B, and then injects B into A.

Implementation techniques[edit]

In object-oriented programming, there are several basic techniques to implement inversion of control. These are:

• Using a service locator pattern
• Using dependency injection, for example
  • Constructor injection
  • Parameter injection
  • Setter injection
  • Interface injection
• Using a contextualized lookup
• Using template method design pattern
• Using strategy design pattern

In an original article by Martin Fowler,^[9] the first three different techniques are discussed. In a description about inversion of control types,^[10] the last one is mentioned. Often the contextualized lookup will be accomplished using a service locator

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Examples[edit]

Most frameworks such as .NET or Enterprise Java display this pattern:

This basic outline in Java gives an example of code following the IoC methodology. It is important, however, that in the ServerFacade a lot of assumptions are made about the data returned by the data access object (DAO).

Although all these assumptions might be valid at some time, they couple the implementation of the ServerFacade to the DAO implementation. Designing the application in the manner of inversion of control would hand over the control completely to the DAO object. The code would then become

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The example shows that the way the method respondToRequest is constructed determines if IoC is used. It is the way that parameters are used that define IoC. This resembles the message-passing style that some object-oriented programming languages use.

See also[edit]

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References[edit]

1. ^Ralph E. Johnson & Brian Foote (June–July 1988). 'Designing Reusable Classes'. Journal of Object-Oriented Programming, Volume 1, Number 2. Department of Computer Science University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. pp. 22–35. Retrieved 29 April 2014.
2. ^Michael Mattsson (February 1996). 'Object-Oriented Frameworks, A survey of methodological issues'.
3. ^Stefano Mazzocchi (22 January 2004). 'On Inversion of Control'. Archived from the original on 2 February 2004.CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown (link)
4. ^ ^abDependency Injection.
5. ^Inversion of Control on Martin Fowler's Bliki
6. ^'Introduction to Jackson Design Method'(PDF).
7. ^Archive index at the Wayback Machine Inside Architecture: write once, run anywhere by Loek Bergman
8. ^The Dependency Inversion principle by Robert C. Martin
9. ^Inversion of Control Containers and the Dependency Injection Pattern by Martin Fowler
10. ^IoC TypesArchived 15 June 2009 at the Wayback Machine

External links[edit]